Fourteen-year-old Matilda Crabtree was just playing a practical joke on her father: she jumped out of a closet and yelled “Boo!” as her parents came home at one in the morning from visiting friends.
But Bobby Crabtree and his wife thought Matilda was staying with friends that night. Hearing noises as he entered the house, Crabtree reached for his .357 caliber pistol and went into Matilda’s bedroom to investigate. When his daughter jumped from the closet, Crabtree shot her in the neck. Matilda Crabtree died twelve hours later.
One emotional legacy of evolution is the fear that mobilizes us to protect our family from danger; that impulse impelled Bobby Crabtree to get his gun and search his house for the intruder he thought was prowling there. Fear primed Crabtree to shoot before he could fully register what he was shooting at, even before he could recognize his daughter’s voice. Automatic reactions of this sort have become etched in our nervous system, evolutionary biologists presume, because for a long and crucial period in human prehistory they mattered for the main task of evolution: being able to bear progeny who would carry on these very genetic predispositions – a sad irony, given the tragedy at the Crabtree household. (Goleman, 1996)
The abovementioned account given by Daniel Goleman (1996) is a tragic illustration of how emotion may play out. Goleman asserted that human beings’ emotion, in its evolutionary purpose, has not caught up with the current realities. This paper will examine that view and others within the evolutionary perspective. This paper will also present the humanistic perspective, as the other of the two psychology perspectives selected for the purpose of this paper, on emotion and establish the main assertion that emotion are part of the organismic valuing system and provide useful insights to the path of self-actualisation (Rogers, 1982).
This paper will commence with definition of emotion and its subcomponents; the biological (physiological), the cognitive, the behavioural and the sociocultural. Subsequently, this paper will present scientific evidences and assumptions of both humanistic and evolutionary psychology perspectives. Finally, this paper shall present an outline of how the author might apply the presented assertions to improve functioning in her life.
This section of the paper presents the definition of emotion by various authorities. Emotion was defined as an experience that is based on personal opinion and feelings that individuals may or may not be aware of (LeDoux, 1998). Another psychologist, Walton (2004), provided an interesting cognitive-based definition for emotion. He defined emotion as “a short lived neurological reaction arising from what is often abrupt stimulation of the relevant nerve centres in the brain”. Goleman referred to emotion as a feeling and “its distinctive thoughts, psychological and biological states, and range of propensities to act”. The three definitions above addressed different aspects of emotions, and hinted at the existing vastly varied ways to define emotion. In summary, no matter what the detailed definition of emotion, it is generally agreed amongst psychologists that emotion encompasses a few major components; cognitive, bodily or physiological and behavioural (Plutchik, 1968) and sociocultural.
This paragraph presents the three major components of emotion listed by Plutchik and a fourth more recent component considered by psychologists, the sociocultural component. The cognitive component of emotion consists of an element of appraisal. Cognitive appraisal is key to how individuals perceive their physiological arousal. The physiological component of emotion is the complex biological processes involving body, mind and face, including peripheral nervous system, the neurotransmitter systems (hypothalamus, limbic system and cortex), autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system. (King, 2011; Weiten, 2001; Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2012; Plutchik, 1968). The behavioural component of emotion includes verbal and non-verbal display of emotions such as facial expressions. One hypothesis about facial expressions, the Facial Feedback Hypothesis, discussed the effect of facial expressions on emotion. It hypothesised that signals sent by the facial muscles to the brain, assist in recognition of the emotion. Lastly, the sociocultural component asserts that emotions are universal but guided by display rules that differ from one culture to another (Weiten, 2001; King, 2011).
According to Walton, emotions are the foundation of individuals’ social and cultural lives, and are not merely “spasmodic bursts of feeling that well up in response to external stimuli”. This assertion seemed to be promoting the sociocultural component as key importance to defining emotion. Walton also urged that one need to take into consideration the “active (induced in others e.g. form of social control) and passive (subjected) forms of emotions” when seeking to understand emotion (2004).
This section of the paper addresses the evolutionary perspective on emotion. Beginning with Darwinian perspective as the foundation, this paper will present basic evolutionary theories on emotion and follow with other aspects covered by modern evolutionary theories. This paper will endeavour to identify the assumptions and scientific evidence raised to support the evolutionary theories as intermediate conclusion to the section.
The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions. He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief loses his best change of recovering elasticity of mind. (Darwin, 1872)
Charles Darwin provided the basic elements for evolutionary perspective with his research on emotional expression of humans and animals. Darwin asserted that emotions were innate preparatory reactions, with the objective of increasing survival probability, which affected human behaviour. Darwin believed that emotion comprise a set of “biologically based, precognitive emotional states of mind” (Hinton, 1999) that are “the direct result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the first independent of the will (Darwin, 1872/1965:66)”. He hypothesized that emotion has an adaptive nature, and has “habituated responses” from exposure to, repeated fulfilment of conation or other events that affected wellbeing. He added that, evolved from emotions of animals, human emotions are similar across all cultures and originate from the nervous system. This has an implication that emotions are not learned and are mostly involuntary. In addition, Darwin emphasised the communicative purpose of emotions, which control and mould social behaviour and work to ensue survival (Walton, 2004; Weiten, 2006; Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2012). Expressions also communicate unique emotional states. Darwin listed “6 basic facially legible emotions – happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust and surprise” in his research publication, The Expression of the emotions in man and animals (1872/1998).
Other evolutionary scholars built on Darwinian perspectives and asserted that one is able to observe emotions, “adapative, psychobiological responses”, through facial expressions and behaviour (Hinton, 1999, p. 3).
The underlying assumptions of evolutionary perspective are that humans have one common ancestor (Walton, p. xviii) and that emotion can be traced to subcortical brain structure which “evolved before the higher brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thoughts” (Weiten, p. 420). Other assumptions included the assertion that humans possess a small index of “innate emotions with proven adaptive value” and that other emotions are either mixtures of basic emotions or are emotions that describe varying intensity (Plutchik, 1968).
Paul Ekman, and his colleagues, provided scientific evidence for the evolutionary perspective on emotion through his cross cultural studies where people from different culture were able to accurately matched emotions on pictures showing the facial expressions of unknown individuals of a different race (Ekman, 1973). Paul Ekman further ascertained that evolutionary and sociocultural factors affected emotion; evolutionary disposition “set off” the “affect program” and culture mould “emblems”, “body manipulator actions”, “illustrators”, “display rules”, coping strategies and appraisal process of individual’s emotional experience (Hinton, 1999). Hence, he was of the view that “Innate factors play a role in accounting for both the characteristics shared by emotions and for those that distinguish one emotion from another. Emotions have evolved for their adaptive value in dealing with fundamental life tasks” (Ekman & Davidson, 1994). One may notice that Ekman’s perspective on the adaptive value of emotion differed from Goleman’s assertion that emotion lagged on adaptive value.
Humanistic perspective took up where evolutionary perspective left off with regards to the adaptive value of emotion. In this section, this paper presents the humanistic perspective on emotion. In order to provide a concise humanistic perspective of emotion, this paper has chosen to focus on presenting views of Carl Rogers, one of the two founders of humanistic psychology, who made most references to the role of emotions in his theory.
Rogers did not attempt to define or redefine emotion but instead focused on the adaptive value of emotion. Rogers established that human beings have an innate organismic valuing system in which emotion is an important part. It may be important to note that Rogers used the word “feeling, feel” to refer to the appraising nature of emotion. According to Rogers, individuals learn to trust their organismic valuing system when they were provided with a safe external environment to explore and articulate their emotion. Rogers established that external and internal acceptance of one’s authentic emotional experience was an essential step in the process of becoming a fully functioning person. He suggested that acceptance of feelings of self and others were the key to a therapeutic relationship (Zimrig, 1994).
This part of the paper presents Carl Rogers’ assumptions on emotion. Rogers assumed that individuals could readily tune in to awareness of emotion. And that awareness of emotion is a conscious process in which individuals have free will to harness and speed up the adaptive nature of emotion. Rogers assumed that all emotions had constructive function, and that recognition of the emotion could bring about fulfilment of the self-actualising nature. Rogers also assumed that individuals’ emotions are affected by childhood experiences (Rogers, 1982).
Rogers’ assumptions and theories were based on his qualitative research where he recorded self-reports from students and clients. His book, On becoming a person : A therapist’s view of psychotherapy amongst his extensive writings, presented numerous records of therapy sessions and self-reflection that supported his theories.
This section of the paper presents the outline of how I may apply the theories of both evolutionary and humanistic assertion to improve functioning in my life. I shall commence by enumerating key concepts within both perspectives that resonated with me.
I resonated with the innate nature of emotion and have been practising identification of the seven universal facial expressions (joy, anger, disgust, surprise, contempt, sadness and fear) within self and from others. I feel that facial recognition skill is instrumental to assist me in understanding others and myself. It will also be invaluable in improving communication and help me build stronger relationships with others as I understand and accept their emotions as innate, mostly involuntary and subjective.
I understand the tendency for emotion to be habituated and believe that emotion has high adaptive value. I recognise that emotion may play an important part in leading me to become a fully functioning person, as according to Rogers. This understanding and recognition is empowering and will serve to encourage me to work with my emotion and have greater autonomy over them without falling to despair or repression.
Finally, I feel that although emotion is a vital part of a human existence, attending to every emotion that arises is time consuming and perhaps not practical for a contemporary lifestyle. While I seek to cultivate greater emotional balance through contemplative practices and psychotherapies, I endeavour to remember that I am restfully dependent on Jesus Christ, my Spiritual guide and Saviour, and not singularly dependent on contemporary psychology perspectives and practices to live a satisfying and fulfilling life.
In conclusion, psychologists, regardless of what perspective they take, agree that emotion has four main components. Evolutionary and humanistic psychologists have chosen to focus on different aspects of emotion. Perhaps, Ekman’s latest collaboration with contemplative scholar, Allan Wallace, Cultivating Emotional Balance Training, 2010, might be an exercise worthy of investigation as it seeks to present strategies and practically address the gaps between all psychology perspectives including humanistic, evolutionary, cognitive, behavioural and psychodynamic.
Reference
Burton, L. Westen, D. & Kowalski, R. (2012). Psychology. (3rd ed. Australian & New Zealand ed.). Australia : John Wiley & Sons Australia.
Darwin, C. (1872/1965). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago : University of Chicago Press
Darwin, C. (1872/1998). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. London : Fontana Press
Ekman, P. (1973). Darwin and facial expression : A century of research in review. (ed.). New York : Academic Press.
Ekman, P. & Davidson, R. J. (1994). The nature of emotion : Fundamental questions. (ed.). New York : Oxford University Press.
Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional intelligence : Why it can matter more than IQ. London : Bloomsbury.
Hinton, A. L. (1999). Biocultural approaches to the emotions. Cambridge : University Press
King, A. L. (2011). The science of psychology : An appreciative view. (2nd ed.). New York : McGraw-Hill.
LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain : The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Plutchik, R. (1968). The emotions : Facts, theories, and a new model. New York : Random House.
Rogers, C. R. (1982). A therapist’s view of psychotherapy: On becoming a person. London : Constable & Company.
Walton, S. (2004). A natural history of human emotions. New York : Grove Press
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology : Themes and variation. (5th ed.). Australia : Wadsworth – Thomson Learning
Zimrig, F. (1994). Carl Rogers. Prospects : The quarterly review of comparative education, XXIV(3/4), pp. 411-422.
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